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Table 3 Crude and adjusted odds ratios, with 95% confidence intervals, for modifiable lifestyle risk factors and risk of depression

From: Lifestyle factors, demographics and medications associated with depression risk in an international sample of people with multiple sclerosis

  

Positive depression screen^, n/N(%)

p

Crude OR (95% CI)

A OR (95% CI)

Smoking

Never

153/1072 (14.3)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Former

178/890 (20.0)

1.50 (1.19–1.90)**

1.54 (1.18–2.03)**

Current

96/257 (37.4)

3.58 (2.64–4.86)***

2.29 (1.60–3.27)***

Alcohol

Low

310/1354 (22.9)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Moderate

113/834 (13.5)

0.53 (0.42–0.67)***

0.73 (0.55–0.96)*

High

4/17 (23.5)

1.04 (0.34–3.20)

1.35 (0.38–4.74)

Exercise

Low

257/909 (28.3)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Moderate

104/701 (14.8)

0.44 (0.34–0.57)***

0.58 (0.43–0.78)***

High

63/591 (10.7)

0.30 (0.23–0.41)***

0.51 (0.36–0.72)***

Vitamin D

None

117/389 (30.1)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

1- 5000 IU

231/1324 (17.4)

0.49 (0.38–0.64)***

0.57 (0.43–0.77)***

> 5000 IU

64/439 (14.6)

0.40 (0.28–0.56)***

0.47 (0.32–0.70)***

Omega 3

No

218/791 (27.6)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Yes

205/1420 (14.4)

0.44 (0.36–0.55)***

0.58 (0.45–0.75)***

Omega 3 type

None

218/791 (27.6)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Fish oil^

127/778 (16.3)

0.51 (0.40–0.66)***

0.64 (0.48–0.85)**

Flaxseed oil

21/200 (10.5)

0.31 (0.19–0.50)***

0.48 (0.28–0.82)**

Both fish oil and flaxseed oil

46/388 (11.9)

0.35 (0.25–0.50)***

0.49 (0.33–0.72)***

Fish consumption

Less than once per week

180/638 (28.2)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

1–2 times per week

173/884 (19.6)

0.62 (0.49–0.79)***

0.71 (0.54–0.93)*

3 or more days per week

75/696 (10.8)

0.31 (0.23–0.41)***

0.48 (0.34–0.67)***

Meditation

Never

241/1058 (22.8)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Less than once per week

99/493 (20.1)

0.85 (0.66–1.11)

0.86 (0.64–1.17)

1–4 times per week

56/440 (12.7)

0.49 (0.36–0.68)***

0.52 (0.36–0.75)***

5 or more times per week

29/227 (12.8)

 

0.50 (0.33–0.75)**

0.47 (0.29–0.75)**

Social support

6 or more

40/299 (13.4)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

2–5

215/1316 (16.3)

1.26 (0.88–1.82)

1.11 (0.74–1.66)

1

134/475 (28.2)

2.54 (1.73–3.75)***

2.42 (1.55–3.77)***

None

34/111 (30.6)

2.86 (1.70–4.82)***

2.43 (1.32–4.47)**

Body Mass Index

Normal

176/1183 (14.9)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Underweight

16/92 (17.4)

1.21 (0.69–2.11)

0.97 (0.50–1.88)

Overweight

113/504 (22.4)

1.65 (1.27–2.15)***

1.23 (0.91–1.67)

Obese

116/421 (27.6)

2.18 (1.67–2.84)***

1.47 (1.08–2.01)*

Dietary habits

Upper (fourth) quartile

44/541 (8.1)

<0.001

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Third quartile

75/488 (15.4)

2.05 (1.38–3.04)***

1.65 (1.07–2.54)*

Second quartile

116/502 (23.1)

3.39 (2.34–4.92)***

2.25 (1.48–3.41)***

Lower (first) quartile

150/499 (30.1)

4.86 (3.38–6.98)***

2.73 (1.81–4.11)***

Medication

No DMD

187/1094 (17.1)

.004

1.00 (reference)

1.00 (reference)

Interferon

104/424 (24.5)

1.58 (1.120–2.07)**

1.47 (1.07–2.02)*

DMD not IFN

138/706 (19.5)

1.18 (0.92–1.05)

1.20 (0.90–1.60)

  1. AOR: Adjusted odds ratios of screening positive for depression adjusted for years since diagnosis, number of comorbidities, level of disability, clinically significant fatigue, age, gender, marital status and level of education.
  2. * < 0.05, ** < 0.01, *** < 0.001.
  3. ^ PHQ-2 score ≥3. Bold denotes statistically significant.