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Table 1 Factors associated with BDI-II score (unadjusted and adjusted for sex and age)

From: Factors associated with depression among adolescents living with HIV in Malawi

Variable

Mean (SD, N)/N (%)

Unadjusted Beta Coef (95 % CI)

Unadjusted p-value

Adjusted Beta Coef(95 % CI)

Adjusted p-value

Socio-demographic factors

School Grade

 

Not in school or Junior Primary School

176 (31.3)

2.37 [0.68-4.06]

0.02

5.25 [3.23-7.26]

<0.0001

Senior Primary School

229 (40.7)

1.62 [0.02-3.22]

3.5 [1.78-5.22]

Secondary School or Tertiary

157 (27.9)

Reference

Reference

Family’s estimated combined income

 

Less than 14,000 MK per month

171 (31.8)

0.36 [−1.29-2.02]

0.61

0.38 [−1.26-2.02]

0.64

14,000 -49,999 MK per month

117 (21.8)

−0.85 [−2.69-0.99]

−0.79 [−2.61-1.03]

More than 50,000 per month

71 (13.2)

−0.48 [−2.65-1.68]

−0.37 [−2.52-1.77]

I do not know

178 (33.1)

Reference

Reference

Location of home

 

In the city

369 (65.7)

−1.24 [−2.98-0.50]

0.06

−1.49 [−3.22-0.25]

0.06

Just outside the city

93 (16.5)

0.74 [−1.48-2.97]

0.3 [−1.92-2.52]

Rural area

100 (17.8)

Reference

Reference

Time it takes to get to the clinic from home

 

0-30minutes

71 (12.7)

−0.88 [−2.96-1.20]

0.71

−0.92 [−2.98-1.15]

0.67

31-60 minutes

229 (40.8)

−0.15 [−1.56-1.25]

−0.36 [−1.76-1.04]

>60 minutes

261 (46.5)

Reference

Reference

Primary caregiver type

 

Father/Mother

178 (31.7)

−1.63 [−3.39-0.13]

0.01

−1.36 [−3.12-0.39]

0.02

Both parents

112 (19.9)

−3.39 [−5.36--1.42]

−3.09 [−5.06--1.12]

Uncle/Aunt

138 (24.6)

−1.5 [−3.37-0.37]

−1.32 [−3.18-0.54]

Other/Grandparent

134 (23.8)

Reference

Reference

Past-traumatic events/stressors

Maternal death or employment status

 

Not working

106 (18.9)

−0.95 [−2.71-0.80]

0.01

−0.8 [−2.55-0.95]

0.03

Self-employed

103 (18.3)

−1.51 [−3.29-0.26]

−1.37 [−3.14-0.40]

Employed by someone else

73 (13)

−3.22 [−5.24--1.19]

−2.97 [−4.99--0.95]

Died

280 (49.8)

Reference

Reference

Change in caregiver

 

No change in caregiver

422 (75.2)

−1.59 [−3.10--0.08]

0.04

−1.59 [−3.09--0.09]

0.04

Caregiver has changed once or more

139 (24.8)

Reference

Reference

Experience of family/household deaths

 

Nobody in my family has died

149 (26.5)

−2.42 [−3.89--0.95]

0.001

−2.51 [−3.97--1.05]

0.0008

One or more people have died

413 (73.5)

Reference

Reference

Failed school term/class

 

No

327 (58.9)

−1.64 [−2.97--0.31]

0.02

−1.73 [−3.05--0.41]

0.01

Yes

228 (41.1)

Reference

Reference

Experience of forced sex, physical abuse, or witnessed physical violence in the home

 

No

477 (84.9)

−3.16 [−4.97--1.35]

0.0006

−2.97 [−4.79--1.15]

0.001

Yes

85 (15.1)

Reference

Reference

Experience of being bullied for one’s physical appearance

 

No

427 (76.1)

−3.11 [−4.62--1.59]

0.0001

−2.78 [−4.31--1.25]

0.0004

Yes

134 (23.9)

Reference

Reference

Experience of being bullied for taking medicines

 

No

459 (88.4)

−5.7 [−7.75--3.64]

<0.0001

−5.3 [−7.40--3.19]

<0.0001

Yes

60 (11.6)

Reference

Reference

Hospital admissions in the past year

 

No

510 (90.7)

−2.08 [−4.34-0.17]

0.07

−2.13 [−4.36-0.10]

0.06

Yes

52 (9.3)

Reference

Reference

Behavioral factors/social support

Experience of being in a romantic relationship that did not involve sex

 

Never had a boyfriend/girlfriend

479 (85.4)

−3.52 [−5.35--1.69]

0.0002

−2.96 [−4.96--0.96]

0.004

Yes, in the past or current

82 (14.6)

Reference

Reference

Satisfaction with the way I look (physical appearance)

 

I am very happy with the way I look

460 (82)

−4.65 [−6.31--2.99]

<0.0001

−4.34 [−6.00--2.68]

<0.0001

I am somewhat/ not at all satisfied with the way I look

101 (18)

Reference

Reference

Use of alcohol in the past 30 days

 

Never

547 (97.3)

−7.76 [−11.77--3.74]

0.0002

−7.35 [−11.35--3.36]

0.0003

Once a month or more

15 (2.7)

Reference

Reference

HIV disclosure status*

 

Disclosed and have shared with someone

273 (48.6)

0.19 [−1.59-1.97]

0.09

0.98 [−2.86-0.97]

0.02

Disclosed, have not shared with anyone

184 (32.7)

1.68 [−0.21-3.57]

0.98 [−0.74-3.12]

Not disclosed

105 (18.7)

Reference

 

Reference

 

Age at disclosure

12.35 (1.63, 457)

0.55 [0.10-1.00]

0.02

0.42 [−0.09-0.92]

0.11

Bio-clinical parameters

Child on ART

 

No

36 (6.4)

0.83 [−1.84-3.50]

0.54

0.99 [−1.66-3.64]

0.46

Yes

526 (93.6)

Reference

Reference

Efavirenz based ART regimen

 

No

526 (93.6)

−0.71 [−3.38-1.96]

0.60

−0.71 [−3.36-1.95]

0.60

Yes

36 (6.4)

Reference

Reference

Second line ART regimen

 

No

491 (87.4)

0.68 [−1.29-2.65]

0.50

0.65 [−1.33-2.63]

0.52

Yes

71 (12.6)

Reference

Reference

History of TB treatment

 

No

309 (55)

0.77 [−0.54-2.09]

0.25

0.75 [−0.55-2.06]

0.26

Yes

253 (45)

Reference

Reference

Initial WHO stage

 

WHO stage 1-2

160 (28.7)

−0.12 [−1.57-1.34]

0.87

0.03 [−1.42-1.47]

0.97

WHO Stage 3-4

398 (71.3)

Reference

Reference

Most recent CD4 count

516 (307, 509)

0 [−0.01--0.00]

0.009

0 [−0.00--0.00]

0.02

HIV immunological classification (based on CD4)

 

None or not significant

235 (46.2)

−2.34 [−4.18--0.49]

0.03

−2.26 [−4.09--0.43]

0.05

Mild

112 (22)

−0.94 [−3.05-1.18]

−1 [−3.09-1.09]

Advanced

68 (13.4)

−0.16 [−2.56-2.25]

−0.15 [−2.53-2.22]

Severe

94 (18.5)

Reference

Reference

Current nutritional status

 

Normal

544 (96.8)

−2.44 [−6.15-1.28]

0.20

−3.14 [−6.83-0.56]

0.10

Malnourished

18 (3.2)

Reference

Reference

BMI for age z-score

−0.88 (1.18, 561)

0.08 [−0.48-0.63]

0.79

−0.19 [−0.76-0.39]

0.52

Height for age z-score

−1.79 (1.16, 561)

−0.98 [−1.54-0.42]

0.0006

−1.31 [−1.88-0.74]

<0.0001

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BMC Psychiatry

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