Table 2 Characteristics of individual studies included in the systematic review

Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ et al. (2008) [29] ^b

Netherlands

6 monthly sessions (1 h30 each)

To stimulate parents’ sensitive interactive skills (focusing on sensitive discipline) to prevent further increase of child externalizing problems

Diurnal

Wake-up, before lunch and bedtime

3

Berlin LJ et al. (2019) [30]

United States

10 weekly sessions

To provide nurturance, to follow the child’s lead with delight and to avoid intrusive and frightening behaviors

Reactivity

24% before 10 am, 40% 10 am-1 pm, 36% 1 pm or later)

4 (pre-task, 5 min post-task, 20 min post-task, 40 min post-task)

Bernard K et al. (2015) [31]^c

United States

10 weekly sessions (1 h each)

To help parents become more synchronous and nurturing, and less frightening, in their interactions with their children

Diurnal

Wake-up and bedtime

2

Bernard K et al. (2015) [32] ^c

United States

10 weekly sessions (1 h each)

To help parents become more synchronous and nurturing, and less frightening, in their interactions with their children

Diurnal

Wake-up and bedtime

2 (over 3 days)

Bernard K et al. (2015) [33] ^c

United States

10 weekly sessions

To increase resilience to distress, increase synchronous interactions, and decrease frightening parental behavior

Diurnal

30 min after wake-up and bedtime

2 (over 3 days)

Borghini A et al. (2009) [34]

Switzerland

4 to 5 sessions in a 4-month period (1 h30 each)

To improve the quality of the parent-baby relationships by helping parents to better understand children and support development

Reactivity and diurnal

8 h, 12 h, 14 h, 14 h20, 14 h40, 16 h, 20 h

7

Brotman LM et al. (2007) [35]

United States

22 weekly sessions (90 min individually + 30 min parent-child each) + 10 biweekly sessions (90 min each) + 6 sessions in a 6 to 8-month period

To improve parenting practices and preschoolers’ social competence with the goal of preventing later conduct problems

Reactivity and diurnal

Morning (40%) and afternoon (60%)

2 (pre-task and post-task) + 4 times a week after (7 am, 12 am, 4 pm, 8 pm)

Bugental DB et al. (2010) [21]^d

United States

17 sessions in a 1-year period + possible visits in a 3-year period

To assist parents to acquire cognitive resources (skills in obtaining information relevant to child development, knowledge about effective ways to manage caregiving challenges and ways to obtain information and make contact with community agencies)

Diurnal

Mid-morning (10 am)

1

Cicchetti D et al. (2011) [36] ^b

United States

46 weekly sessions

To encourage sensitive interactions by helping parents form positive representations of themselves and the caregiver-child relationship, and to teach parenting skills, relaxation techniques, and behaviors that promote social support

Diurnal

Mid-morning (10 am)

1

DePasquale CE et al. (2018) [37]

United States

10 weekly sessions

To enhance nurturance and synchrony while reducing frightening behavior in at-risk families

Reactivity

Mid-morning (10 am)

3 (pre-task, 15 min post-test, 30 min post-task)

Dozier M et al. (2006) [22]

United States

10 weekly sessions (1 h each)

To help caregivers override their own issues that interfere with providing nurturing care, and provide an environment that helps children develop regulatory capabilities

Diurnal

Wake-up and bedtime

2 (over 2 days)

Dozier M et al. (2008) [38]

United States

10 weekly sessions (1 h each)

To help parents become more synchronous and nurturing, and less frightening, in their interactions with their children

Reactivity

–

3 (pre-task, 15 min post-test, 30 min post-task)

Fisher PA et al. (2007) [39]

United States

6 to 9 months of intensive training (12 h) + daily calls + weekly sessions for children and parents individually

To address the developmental and social-emotional needs of foster preschoolers

Diurnal

30 min after wake-up and 30 min before bedtime

2 (day 1) + 2 (day 2) for 12 months

Fisher PA et al. (2008) [40] ^b

United States

6 to 9 months of intensive training (12 h) + Daily calls + weekly sessions for children and parents individually

To address the developmental and social-emotional needs of foster preschoolers

Diurnal

30 min after wake-up and 30 min before bedtime

2

Habersaat S et al. (2014) [41] ^b

Netherlands

1 session (60–80 min) + 3 sessions (10 min)

To enhance parent’s observation and understanding of the specific competencies of their preterm infant and promoting parents’ sensitivity and responsiveness toward the infant’s behavioral characteristics

Diurnal

Wake-up (8 h), before meal at noon, afternoon (17 h), before bedtime (20 h)

4 (over 2 days)

Letourneau N et al. (2011) [42]

Canada

12 weekly sessions

To teach new mothers about maternal–infant interactions, contingent responsiveness, and to provide support for postpartum depressed mothers

Diurnal

Wake-up, noon, mid-afternoon, bedtime

4

Luecken LJ et al. (2010) [43]

United States

12 weekly sessions (2 h of interaction + 12 min of discussion)

To increase positive caregiver-child relationships, effective discipline, and to decrease children’s exposure to stressful events

Reactivity

Afternoon/evening (between 3 and 9 pm)

4 (pre-task, post-task, 15 min post-task, 30 min post-task)

Luecken LJ et al. (2014) [44] ^b

United States

12 weekly sessions (2 h)

To increase the positive quality of the caregiver-child relationship, enhance caregivers’ use of effective discipline, decrease caregiver mental health problems, decrease children’s exposure to stressful events, improve youth coping skills, and to promote adaptive beliefs about why negative events occur

Reactivity

Pre-task, post-task, 15 min post-task, 30 min post-task

4

Luecken LJ et al. (2015) [45]

United States

11 group sessions and 2 individual sessions in a 15-year period (1 h45)

To improve mother–child relationship quality and effective discipline, to decrease barriers between the mother and child, and to decrease interparental conflict

Reactivity

Morning and evening

4 (pre-task, post-task, 20 min post-task, 40 min post-task)

Nelson EM et al. (2013) [46]

United States

10 weekly sessions (1.5 h)

To build caregiver’s confidence and competence in sensitivity, to have developmentally-appropriate expectations, and reframe caregiver’s understanding and responses to children’s ambiguous cues and difficult behavior

Reactivity

On arrival, before task, 30 min post-task, 45 min post-task, next morning 30 min after wake-up

5

O’Neal CR et al. (2010) [47]

United States

22 sessions for parents + 22 sessions for preschoolers + 22 parent-child interactions + 10 home visits

To encourage parents to use nonharsh, consistent, and appropriate disciplinary strategies, be less critical, use positive reinforcement and promote children’s social competence

Diurnal

Majority in the afternoon, but some mid-morning

1

Pirnia B et al. (2019) [48] ^b

Iran

12 weekly sessions

To improve communication in children and to practice interactive discipline in parents

Diurnal

Not described

3

Poehlmann-Tynan J et al. (2019) [49] ^b

United States

8 weekly sessions (2 h)

To cultivate mindfulness, self-compassion, equanimity and compassion to others, and its applications to parenting

3 cm of hair

NA

NA

Prats LM et al. (2018) [50]

Argentina

13 weekly sessions (50 min)

To promote cognitive development of children through the promotion of parenting practices

Diurnal

Morning (8 h30 to 9 h) and night

2

Toth SL et al. (2015) [28] ^a

United States

48 weekly sessions

Intervention I: to improve the mother–child relationship, through the provision of developmental guidance based on maternal concerns.Intervention II: to improve current concerns about parental education, maternal stress, and social support encouraging mothers to seek further education and employment and enhanced informal social support.

Diurnal

Mid-morning (as close as 10 am)

1

Turpyn CC et al. (2019) [51] ^b

United States

8 weekly sessions (2 h)

To promote mindfulness intervention, focusing on parenting interactions

Reactivity

Pre-task, post-task, 15 min post-task, 30 min post-task

4

Van Andel H et al. (2016) [52]

Netherlands

Every 2 weeks in a 3-month period (90 min)

To help foster caregivers interpret the interaction with their child

Diurnal

Wake-up and bedtime

2