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Table 2 Description of procedures used in intervention and control arms

From: The effectiveness of parent training for children with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses

Intervention arm

Control arm

Language and Communication

 Drew, and colleagues (2002)

The social-pragmatic joint attention focussed parent training programme where speech and language therapists visit parents at home over 6 weeks for 3-h sessions, and demonstrate principles of behaviour management, social pragmatic approach to developing joint attention, nonverbal communication and language skills. The activities for the next 6 weeks were set out in collaboration with the parents, determined by the cognitive and communicative level of the child and their learning style, to be part of play and then to be incorporated into their everyday activities. Therapists were available for telephone support.

Local services –

Mixture of speech and language therapy, portage worker input and paramedical input such as occupational therapy and physiotherapy. Three children started 1 to 1 therapy with parents acting as therapists with supervision from Lovaas therapists.

 Oosterling, and colleagues (2010)

Focus Parent Training: started with four weekly 2-h sessions with a group of parents, followed by individual 3-h home visits every 6 weeks during the first year. In the second year, the home visits were scheduled at 3-month intervals. The rest of the training was similar to Drew and colleagues as this was replication of the study.

Special day care centres or medical nurseries where on an individual basis, speech and language therapy, motor therapy, music therapy, and play therapy are provided.

Psychology input can be arranged from low-frequency sessions with a psychologist (e.g., 1 h per month) to intensive practical support set up in the home environment

 Nefdt, and colleagues (2010)

Self-directed learning-Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT):

Interactive DVD and accompanying manual covering the procedures used in PRT. DVD was designed to teach parents strategies to increase child motivation to engage in social communication, for providing opportunities for child responses, staying on tasks, and reinforcing attempts, to teach parents basic behavioural techniques such as providing clear prompts and immediate, contingent consequences.

Wait list group

 Harden, and colleagues (2015)

Pivotal response treatment group (PRT):

Psychologists specializing in PRT utilized the manual How to teach Pivotal behaviours to Children with Autism by Koegel et al. (1989) and a standard set of PRT material and video examples and taught 8, 90 min sessions of parents only consisting of 4 to 6 parents and 1–2 therapists. This was followed by 4 parent child dyad sessions which were individual sessions lasting 60 min with a therapist.

Parent Education

Taught by clinical psychology graduate students supervised by a licensed psychologist

12 sessions based on existing autism parent psychology program. 10 sessions parents only groups lasting 90 min. 2 sessions individual parent child dyad sessions with therapist lasting 60 min

 Gengoux, and colleagues (2019)

Pivotal Response Treatment Package:

Pivotal Response Treatment Package based on a standard set of PRT teaching materials and video examples, Weekly 60-min parent training sessions and 10 h per week of clinician delivered in-home treatment to children from week 1 to 12 followed by monthly 60-min parent training sessions and 5 h per week of in-home treatment for children between weeks 12 and 24

Delayed Treatment Group

Interaction and Play

 Rogers, and colleagues (2019)

Early Start Denver Model

12 weeks - consecutive weeks, sessions with experienced therapists sessions covered a) increasing child’s attention and motivation; (b) using sensory social routines; (c) promoting dyadic engagement and joint activity routines; (d) enhancing nonverbal communication; (e) building imitation skills; (f) facilitating joint attention; (g) promoting speech development; (h) using antecedent-behaviour-consequence relationships (“ABC’s of learning”); (i) employing prompting, shaping, and fading techniques; and (j) conducting functional assessment of behaviour to develop new interventions.

Followed by 2 h coaching every 2 weeks.

Through enrolment.

Treatment as usual

 Pajareya and Nopmaneejumruslers (2011)

Developmental Individual Difference, Relationship based DIR/Floortime™

DIR focusses on the integrated model of human development including interaction with caregivers and the environment, biological, motor and sensory differences, and the child’s functional emotional developmental capacities. Parents attended a one-day training workshop to learn about the model and received a 3-h DVD lecture. This was followed by one on one visits where parents were trained

Routine treatment

Ho and Lin (2020)

Home-based parent-training program based on the DIR

Parents received training during the first 2 weeks on DIR, they were provided individualised manuals specific to their children and supported to practice, they were supported at monthly intervals.

Based on the developmental milestones 6 h of training over a three-week period and parent led training not child based.

Behaviour Management

 Bearss, and colleagues (2015)

 Iadarola, and colleagues (2017)

 Bradshaw, and colleagues (2018)

Parent Training-11 core sessions 60–90 min, 2 optional sessions, one home visit, over 16 weeks. I home visit and 2 booster phone calls between 16 and 24 weeks, delivered individually.

Parent Education, delivered individually, 12 sessions of 60 to 90 min and 1 home visit over 24 weeks

 Tonge, and colleagues (2014)

PEBM skills training. ‘Preschoolers with Autism’ manual-based education and behaviour management skills training package

(Brereton and Tonge, 2005).

The programme alternates group and individual sessions and focuses on helping parents to discuss their reactions to the diagnosis and to understand more about the problem areas that characterise autism

PEAC group. Parents in this treatment only received a manual-based education programme. Emphasis was instead on non-directive interactive discussion and counselling.

Routine treatment.

 Malow, and colleagues (2014)

Sleep Study Curriculum covering problems that children with ASD have with sleep, sleep routines, environments etc.

Individualised Programme

The same programme but delivered in groups of 2 to 4 parents

 Sofronoff and Farbotko (2002)

Parent Training to manage behaviours:

Parents attended a workshop which covered

1 psychoeducation

2 comic strip conversations (Gray, 1994a)

3 social stories (Gray, 1994b)

4 management of behaviour problems

5 management of rigid behaviours, routines and special interests

6 anxiety management.

Non-intervention group

 Tellegen and Sanders (2014)

Primary Care Stepping Stones Triple P (PCSSTP)

PCSSTP is a brief parenting program consisting of four short sessions targeting one or two specific child problems and designed to be accessed through primary health care providers Carried out by individual practitioner to address one or two specific problems. Practitioners had degrees in psychology, they used manuals and adhered to it. Sessions meant to last 15 to 30 min but emphasis on covering content so lasted longer. 4 sessions.

Care as usual group

Parent Education

 Jocelyn, and colleagues 1998

Autism Preschool Program

5 weekly 3 h classes attended by parents and child care workers. Through lectures, videos, and discussion, the following areas were covered – introduction to autism, review of the disorder, behaviour analysis techniques, interventions to encourage and enhance communication, improve social interaction, engage child in play, process of problem solving and program development. Autism Behaviour Specialists visited day care centres 3 h per week for 10 weeks simultaneously to develop goals and approaches although they did not work directly with the child. They worked less intensively with the parents than with the childcare workers.

The control group children attended a day care centre with the support of a childcare worker. The programming was the responsibility of the centre and the community consultants.

 Keen, and colleagues 2010

Professionally supported parent focussed intervention

The workshop provided information and parent education on the following topics: autism; social; communication; play; sensory; behaviour; strategies to improve social interaction and communication; embedding strategies within daily routines; using a balanced approach; and selecting a child-focused early intervention program. Each topic followed a prescribed format and content that was delivered through a series of power point slides. The following strategies were presented to encourage parental sensitivity and responsivity: following the child’s focus of attention, getting down to the child’s level, augmentative and alternative communication approaches, offering choice, environmental arrangement, imitation and turn taking.

Immediately following the workshop, facilitators trained in the assessments and strategies used in the program, made 10 × 1 h home-visits which occurred twice-weekly over 5–6 weeks.

Self-directed video-based intervention, with real life examples about how the strategies could be used to enhance social interaction and communication at home. There were activity sheets modelled on the interactive activities from the DVD that the parents could individualise for their family and incorporate strategies into their daily routines.