Characteristic | Neighbourhood (Model 1) | Family demographics (Model 2) | Adverse life experiences (Model 3) | Parent distress (Model 4) | Parenting (Model 5) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | |
Fixed effects | ||||||||||
Intercept | 48.06 (0.70)*** | 49.001 (0.696)*** | 46.06 (1.481)*** | 48.007 (0.849)*** | 45.773 (1.609)*** | 48.396 (0.896)*** | 46.566 (1.595)*** | 48.315 (0.909)*** | 46.405 (1.544)*** | 49.359 (0.836)*** |
Neighbourhood | ||||||||||
% 1st generation immigrants | -0.039 (0.04) | -0.012 (0.032) | -0.042 (0.038) | -0.013 (0.03) | -0.033 (0.04) | -0.011 (0.029) | -0.032 (0.037) | -0.011 (0.029) | -0.031 (0.035) | -0.005 (0.026) |
Median family income (in thousands of dollars) | -0.022 (0.02) | -0.04 (0.021) | -0.005 (0.024) | -0.032 (0.02) | -0.005 (0.024) | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.003 (0.026) | -0.03 (0.02) | -0.017 (0.023) | -0.035 (0.015)* |
Unemployment rate | -0.045 (0.043) | 0.133 (0.055)* | -0.062 (0.043) | 0.13 (0.054)* | -0.08 (0.047) | 0.124 (0.055)* | -0.06 (0.046) | 0.126 (0.055)* | -0.066 (0.045) | 0.11 (0.052)*^ |
Neighbourhood disordera | 0.666 (0.215)** | -0.054 (0.312) | 0.663 (0.216)** | -0.08 (0.323) | 0.634 (0.217)** | -0.034 (0.321) | 0.57 (0.232)* | -0.042 (0.322) | 0.406 (0.197)* | -0.025 (0.312) |
Family socio-demographics | ||||||||||
Parent arrived in Canada as a refugeeb | -0.748 (0.948) | -1.198 (1.004) | -1.84 (0.948) | -1.446 (1.033) | -1.234 (0.909) | -1.376 (1.046) | -1.097 (0.91) | -1.248 (0.989) | ||
Years parent living in Canada | 0.04 (0.08) | -0.026 (0.058) | 0.045 (0.076) | -0.025 (0.056) | 0.041 (0.075) | -0.026 (0.056) | 0.009 (0.075) | -0.012 (0.06) | ||
Parent English language proficiencyc | ||||||||||
Poor | 0.827 (1.539) | -2.644 (1.245)* | 1.271 (1.421) | -2.608 (1.213)* | 0.149 (1.448) | -2.642 (1.224)* | -0.177 (1.408) | -2.447 (1.26) | ||
Proficient | 0.71 (0.866) | -0.084 (0.935) | 0.911 (0.931) | -0.024 (0.947) | 0.385 (0.911) | -0.021 (0.953) | 0.266 (0.801) | 0.491 (0.732) | ||
Parent educational attainmentd | ||||||||||
High school or less | 1.989 (1.05) | 0.55 (0.88) | 1.987 (1.005)* | 0.352 (0.912) | 1.652 (1.001) | 0.341 (0.923) | 1.748 (0.993) | 0.646 (0.696) | ||
Below Bachelor's | 1.94 (1.304) | 1.381 (0.908) | 1.682 (1.284) | 1.25 (0.911) | 1.489 (1.252) | 1.261 (0.922) | 1.332 (1.20) | 1.213 (0.781) | ||
Household below Low Income Measure (LIM) | 2.142 (1.013)* | 1.941 (0.797)* | 1.395 (1.013) | 1.779 (0.788)* | 0.394 (0.991) | 1.711 (0.768)* | 0.854 (0.866) | 1.485 (0.71)* | ||
Adverse life experiences | ||||||||||
Parental lifetime trauma exposure | 1.041 (0.22)*** | 0.214 (0.154) | 0.707 (0.228)** | 0.182 (0.162) | 0.654 (0.235)**^ | 0.186 (0.154) | ||||
Parental perceived discrimination (high) | 1.37 (1.105) | -1.44 (1.177) | 0.499 (1.141) | -1.465 (1.206) | 0.461 (1.161) | -1.257 (0.871) | ||||
Parental perceived discrimination (low) | 1.623 (0.689)* | 0.809 (1.055) | 1.415 (0.742) | 0.838 (1.059) | 1.272 (0.695) | 0.406 (0.945) | ||||
Parental distress | 0.435 (0.068)*** | 0.038 (0.053) | 0.356 (0.063)***^ | 0.006 (0.051) | ||||||
Parenting | ||||||||||
Positive (parent report) | -0.316 (0.127)*^ | -0.039 (0.098) | ||||||||
Positive (child report) | -0.008 (0.062) | -0.335 (0.088)***^ | ||||||||
Negative (parent report) | 0.5 (0.196)* | 0.171 (0.165) | ||||||||
Negative (child report) | 0.071 (0.147) | 1.063 (0.206)***^ | ||||||||
Covariates | ||||||||||
Child age | -0.021 (0.333) | 0.694 (0.319)* | -0.092 (0.327) | 0.739 (0.326)* | -0.281 (0.325) | 0.708 (0.312)* | -0.088 (0.336) | 0.726 (0.309)* | -0.181 (0.384) | 0.314 (0.283) |
Child sex (male) | 1.008 (0.761) | 2.087 (0.949)* | 1.087 (0.737) | 2.196 (0.935)* | 1.325 (0.678) | 2.219 (0.923)* | 1.781 (0.624)** | 2.301 (0.914)* | 1.447 (0.577)* | 0.775 (0.794) |
Child immigrant status (1st generation) | -0.409 (0.741) | 2.023 (0.785)** | -1.331 (1.134) | 1.897 (1.038) | -1.046 (1.213) | 1.806 (1.029) | -0.82 (1.203) | 1.883 (1.039) | -0.56 (1.254) | 1.101 (0.888) |
Random effects | ||||||||||
Level 2: School | 3.692 (1.835)* | 3.17 (1.276)* | 3.685 (2.005) | 2.763 (1.236)* | 3.876 (2.009) | 2.572 (1.119)* | 3.79 (1.935)* | 2.535 (1.105)* | 4.088 (2.068)* | 2.043 (0.924)* |
Level 1: Child | 101.37 (6.700)*** | 91.97 (5.141)*** | 90.589 (4.916)*** | 99.265 (6.785)*** | 93.946 (7.256)*** | 90.027 (4.85)*** | 86.976 (7.18)*** | 90.033 (4.882)*** | 81.916 (7.425)*** | 71.298 (4.649)*** |