Neighbourhood (Model 1) | Family demographics (Model 2) | Adverse life experiences (Model 3) | Parent distress (Model 4) | Parenting (Model 5) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) | Parent (b, SE) | Child (b, SE) |
Fixed effects | ||||||||||
Intercept | 43.577 (0.514)*** | 43.554 (0.598)*** | 43.032 (1.1)*** | 42.81 (0.859)*** | 42.696 (1.105)*** | 43.447 (0.754)*** | 43.426 (1.072)*** | 43.532 (0.751)*** | 51.669 (2.197)*** | 60.642 (4.235)*** |
Neighbourhood | ||||||||||
% 1st generation immigrants | -0.077 (0.023)*** | -0.043 (0.029) | -0.066 (0.022)** | -0.048 (0.031) | -0.058 (0.022)* | -0.044 (0.03) | -0.056 (0.021)** | -0.045 (0.029) | -0.052 (0.018)** | -0.031 (0.021) |
Median family income (in thousands of dollars) | 0.024 (0.018) | -0.013 (0.018) | 0.036 (0.018)* | -0.009 (0.019) | 0.036 (0.018)* | -0.007 (0.018) | 0.037 (0.018)* | -0.007 (0.018) | 0.021 (0.014) | -0.014 (0.017) |
Unemployment rate | 0.032 (0.032) | 0.077 (0.043) | 0.016 (0.029) | 0.076 (0.044) | -0.001 (0.027) | 0.067 (0.044) | 0.014 (0.026) | 0.069 (0.044) | 0.005 (0.023) | 0.053 (0.037) |
Neighbourhood disordera | 0.607 (0.208)** | -0.148 (0.26) | 0.575 (0.199)** | -0.161 (0.273) | 0.518 (0.204)* | -0.114 (0.278) | 0.484 (0.21)* | -0.111 (0.269) | 0.300 (0.167) | -0.105 (0.249) |
Family socio-demographics | ||||||||||
Parent arrived in Canada as a refugeeb | 0.091 (0.74) | 0.013 (0.774) | -0.919 (0.759) | -0.439 (0.835) | -0.492 (0.687) | -0.388 (0.835) | -0.264 (0.636) | -0.283 (0.686) | ||
Years parent living in Canada | 0.094 (0.057) | -0.035 (0.072) | 0.094 (0.053) | -0.042 (0.066) | 0.091 (0.052) | -0.043 (0.066) | 0.055 (0.050) | -0.030 (0.068) | ||
Parental English language proficiencyc | ||||||||||
Poor | -0.406 (1.172) | -0.61 (2.161) | -0.024 (1.063) | -0.71 (2.071) | -0.885 (1.08) | -0.816 (2.07) | -1.034 (0.967) | -0.404 (1.565) | ||
Proficient | -0.18 (0.722) | 0.044 (0.978) | 0.02 (0.747) | 0.138 (0.958) | -0.402 (0.783) | 0.086 (0.943) | -0.441 (0.627) | 0.717 (0.663) | ||
Parental educational attainmentd | ||||||||||
High school or less | 1.897 (0.916)* | 0.086 (1.103) | 1.858 (0.875)* | -0.252 (1.172) | 1.615 (0.877) | -0.268 (1.196) | 1.861 (0.888)* | 0.194 (0.895) | ||
Below Bachelor's | 1.433 (1.046) | 0.476 (0.769) | 1.206 (0.971) | 0.274 (0.805) | 1.064 (0.943) | 0.288 (0.816) | 0.913 (0.942) | 0.22 (0.736) | ||
Household below Low Income Measure (LIM) | 1.316 (0.914) | 0.657 (0.951) | 0.723 (0.878) | 0.527 (0.88) | -0.016 (0.849) | 0.458 (0.851) | 0.458 (0.777) | 0.215 (0.774) | ||
Adverse life experiences | ||||||||||
Parental lifetime trauma exposure | 0.979 (0.138)*** | 0.383 (0.219) | 0.75 (0.133)*** | 0.364 (0.217) | 0.661 (0.129)*** | 0.330 (0.190) | ||||
Parental perceived discrimination (high) | 1.27 (0.724) | -2.252 (1.225) | 0.626 (0.746) | -2.311 (1.254) | 0.627 (0.699) | -2.002 (1.138) | ||||
Parental perceived discrimination (low) | 1.111 (0.641) | 0.491 (0.902) | 0.959 (0.686) | 0.513 (0.907) | 0.741 (0.621) | 0.035 (0.710) | ||||
Parental distress | 0.304 (0.054)***^ | 0.027 (0.052) | 0.205 (0.051)*** | -0.014 (0.044) | ||||||
Parenting | ||||||||||
Positive (parent report) | -0.310 (0.087)***^ | -0.024 (0.093) | ||||||||
Positive (child report) | -0.061 (0.043) | -0.266 (0.080)*** | ||||||||
Negative (parent report) | 0.709 (0.110)***^ | 0.296 (0.132)* | ||||||||
Negative (child report) | 0.261 (0.112)* | 1.271 (0.140)***^ | ||||||||
Covariates | ||||||||||
Child age | -0.317 (0.252) | 1.49 (0.288)*** | -0.418 (0.26) | 1.527 (0.284)*** | -0.575 (0.253)* | 1.497 (0.287)*** | -0.454 (0.264) | 1.493 (0.286)*** | -0.595 (0.240)* | 1.101 (0.292)***^ |
Child sex (male) | 0.378 (0.679) | 1.234 (0.599)* | 0.461 (0.637) | 1.216 (0.603)* | 0.69 (0.572) | 1.234 (0.582)* | 0.953 (0.544) | 1.242 (0.599)* | 0.424 (0.449) | -0.308 (0.511) |
Child immigrant status (1st generation) | 1.072 (0.5)* | 1.072 (0.74) | -0.654 (0.923) | 1.52 (0.939) | -0.243 (0.91) | 1.581 (0.984) | -0.181 (0.912) | 1.554 (0.984) | 0.059 (0.902) | 0.824 (0.917) |
Random effects | ||||||||||
Level 2: School | 0.415 (1.224) | 1.62 (1.73) | 0.753 (1.487) | 1.564 (1.811) | 0.883 (1.545) | 1.467 (1.772) | 0.776 (1.081) | 1.257 (1.553) | 1.303 (0.956) | 1.467 (1.367) |
Level 1: Child | 70.481 (3.861)*** | 84.422 (5.333)*** | 68.687 (3.325)*** | 84.246 (5.288)*** | 64.08 (3.236)*** | 82.849 (5.118)*** | 60.679 (3.153)*** | 83.014 (5.145)*** | 43.261 (1.006)*** | 44.424 (0.826)*** |