Table 3 Neuropsychological studies evaluating the five functional domains in young people (12–30 yrs) with a mood and/or anxiety disorder

Social and economic participation

[40]

HC: 13.6 ± 2.1,

HC (47M; 34F),

Evaluate the clinical impact of executive function deficits in youth with BPD-I disorder.

NΨ: Executive function deficits (CPT, CVLT-C, RCF, SCWT, WCST, WAIS-III- FFD)

BPD-I: ↓ executive function ~ ↓ social and economic participation

HC-EFD: 13.9 ± 2.3,

HC-EFD (12M; 5F),

BPD-I: 13.7 ± 2.1,

BPD-I (52M; 24F),

BPD-I-EFD: 12.8 ± 2.4

BPD-I-EFD (49M; 13F)

Functional: GAF, WRAT-III, placement in special class

[39]*

SAD: 23.9 ± 6.7;

SAD (20M; 10F)

Assess the neuropsychological function of SAD without co-morbidity

NΨ: Executive function (CPT, TMT-B, WCST), Processing speed (TMT-A), Verbal learning & memory (AVLT)

SAD: ↓ executive function ~ ↓ social and economic participation (and ↑ SAD severity)

HC: 25.6 ± 5.6

HC (20M; 10F)

Functional: GAF

[29]

MDD: 18.9 ± 2.0,

MDD (4M; 12F),

Investigate the association between cognitive performance and MDD.

NΨ: Executive function (SCWT, TMT-B), Verbal learning & memory (WMS-SR, LLT, RCF-3min), General intellect (WAIS-III-S & V), Attention (WAIS-III- DS, BD & DSp)

MDD: No significant ~ NΨ

HC: 16.9 ± 1.9

HC (11M; 14F)

MDD: ↓ social and economic participation

Functional: GAF

FED: 22.00 ± 4.9

FED (8M; 12F)

Assess the effectiveness of CR in patients with a first-episode of either major depression or psychosis

NΨ: Executive function (CANTAB-IED; -FAS, TMT-B), Processing speed (TMT-A, category fluency), Attention and working memory (LDSF, LDSB, CANTAB-SSP;-RVP, mental control), Immediate learning and memory (Logical Memory I, RAVLT- tot, CANTAB-PAL), Delayed learning and memory (LM-Ret, RCF-3min, RAVLT-Ret)

FED & FEP: CR ~ ↑ immediate learning and memory, and ↑ social and economic participation (mediated by ↑ delayed learning and memory)

FEP: 23.30 ± 3.9

FEP (20M; 13F)

Functional: SFS

[24]

MHP: 21.6 ± 4.5

MDD (34)

Identify cognitive markers that predict later socio-occupational functioning.

NΨ : Executive function (CANTAB-IED, TMT-B), Processing speed (TMT-A, CANTAB-FAS), Attention and working memory (CANTAB-RVP), Verbal learning & memory (LM-Ret, RAVLT-ret), Visual learning & memory (CANTAB- SSP;- PAL)

MHP: ↑ BL general NΨ ~ ↑ social and economic participation at FUP

BPD (29)

PSD (30)

(of the total 93, 52 % were male)

Functional: SOFAS

Suicide and self-harm

[31]

SA: 15.5 ± 1.4

SA (10M; 30F)

Examine decision-making processes in suicide attempters and never-suicidal comparison subjects

NΨ: Decision making (IGT)

SA: ↓ decision making ~ suicide attempt history

PC: 15.6 ± 1.4

PC (10M; 30F)

Functional: CSHF, PSIS

[32]

SA: 18.31 ± 0.63

SA (1M; 12F)

Examine whether cognitive inflexibility can differentially and prospectively predict suicidal ideation.

NΨ: Executive function (WCST; perseverative errors)

SA: ↓ BL cognitive inflexibility ~ ↑ suicide ideation at 6-month FUP.

NSA: 18.31 ± 0.78

NSA (9M; 23F)

Functional: BSS, SBS, SHBQ

[35]

SIB: 15.5 ± 1.3

SIB (99)

Investigate the neuropsychological differences between psychiatric patients with and without SIB.

NΨ: Executive function (SCWT, WCST)

Null findings

NSIB: 15.1 ± 1.4

NSIB (77)

Functional: Clinical interview

[33]

HC: 15.8 ± 1.5

HC (11M; 46F)

Assess decision making and problem solving ability in adolescents with current or past self-harm

NΨ: Decision making (IGT, MEPS)

DSH: ↓ decision making ~ current, but not past DSH

PC: 15.7 + 1.3

PC (2M; 20F)

Functional: Clinical interview

DSH: 15.8 + 1.5

DSH (5M; 49F)

[34]*

SA: 16.20 ± 0.78

SA (4M; 11F)

Measure neural activity during performance on the IGT in adolescents.

NΨ: Decision making (IGT-mod)

SA: ↑ decision making ~ suicide attempt history

PC: 15.79 ± 1.58

PC (7M; 7F)

Functional: C-CASA, CSHF, SIQ, SIS

HC: 15.15 ± 1.46

HC (8M; 5F)

Alcohol and substance use

[164]

CU: 16.2 (13.5 – 18.4)

CU (28M; 42F)

Investigate the non-acute relationship between cannabis use and cognitive function

NΨ: Intelligence (WASI), Executive function (CANTAB-IED), (CANTAB-MS), Attention and working memory (CANTAB-RVP;-SWM; -SSP, DS, SDMT), Immediate learning and memory (RAVLT, CANTAB-PAL)

CU: ↓ attention, spatial working memory and learning.

CU: was independent predictor of performance on the working memory and strategy measures

Functional: TLFB

[165]

HC-NB: 22.9 ± 3.1

HC-NB (7M; 14F)

Compare the cognition in binge drinkers with depression to those with depression alone or binge drinking alone.

NΨ: Intelligence (WTAR), Psychomotor speed (TMT-A) Executive function (TMT-B), Verbal learning and memory (RAVLT), Attention (CANTAB- RVP), working memory (CANTAB-SSP, Visuospatial learning and memory (CANTAB-PAL)

MDD-B: ↓ visual learning & memory and overall pattern of ↓ NΨ functioning.

HC-B: 23.0 ± 2.5;

HC-B (13M; 11F)

MDD-NB: 21.7 ± 3.2

MDD-NB (16M; 32F)

MDD-B: 21.8 ± 3.4

MDD-B (24M; 19F)

Functional: AUDIT

Clinical syndrome

[50]

OCD: 13.84 ± 2.78

OCD (18M; 17F)

Investigate the influence of clinical variables treatment on cognitive performance in OCD patients

NΨ: Intelligence (WISC-R: Vo), Visual organisation (WISC-R:-BD), Attention (WISC-R: -DS;-Co), Verbal learning and memory (WMS-III- LM1 & 2, RAVLT), Visual learning and memory (WMS-III: VR 1 & 2, RCFT), Processing speed (TMT-A), Cognitive flexibility (TMT-B, WCST, SCWT), Verbal fluency (COWAT)

OCD: ↓ verbal and visual memory and velocity. (Neuropsychological impairment was not related to obsessive-compulsive severity)

HC: 13.81 ± 2.74

HC (18M; 17F)

Clinical: CDI, Y-BOCS

[51]

OCD: 13.46 ± 2.83

OCD (16M; 13F)

Explore the evolution of cognitive dysfunction in children and adolescents with OCD after treatment

NΨ: Intelligence (WISC-R: Vo), Visual organisation (WISC-R:-BD), Attention (WISC-R: -DS;-Co), Verbal learning and memory (WMS-III- LM1 & 2, RAVLT), Visual learning and memory (WMS-III: VR 1 & 2, RCFT), Processing speed (TMT-A), Cognitive flexibility (TMT-B, WCST, SCWT), Verbal fluency (COWAT)

OCD: ↓ memory, speed of information processing and cognitive flexibility. (After treatment the cognitive profile of the OCD group was normalized)

HC: 13.06 ± 2.84

HC (12M; 10F)

Clinical: Y-BOCS

[53]

OCD: 29.70 ± 10.74

OCD (12M; 8F)

Examine the impact of depression on executive function deficits in OCD

NΨ: VCAT, Verbal Fluency (COWAT), Processing speed (TMT-A), Cognitive flexibility (TMT-B, WCST)

OCD: cognitive flexibility deficits ~ co-morbid depression severity

HC: 30.06 ± 10.06

HC (11M; 21F)

Clinical: MMPI-D

[47]

HC: 12.5 ± 2.4

HC (11M; 10F)

Compare impulsivity at the neuropsychological and behavioural level in young depressed patients and healthy controls.

NΨ: Cognitive style (MFFT), Verbal fluency (VFT), Decision making (WDWT), cognitive flexibility (SCWT), Impulsivity (CPT)

DD: ↑ symptom severity ~ ↑ reaction time, ↓ in commission errors.

DD: 11.7 ± 2.3

DD (11M; 10)

DD: ↑ conservative response styles & attention problems, ↓ reaction times & response initiation

Clinical: HDRS, CDI, CPRS-R:L

[166]

HC: 28.2 ± 7.9

HC (20M; 28F)

Investigate the effect of syndrome state or course on executive dysfunction

NΨ: Intelligence (NAART), Cognitive flexibility (WCST)

EUT: ↑ cognitive flexibility than MEM. Performed similarly to FEM

EUT: 30.0 ± 7.2

EUT (11M; 14F)

FEM: 25.7 ± 9.2

FEM (11M; 10F)

Clinical: YMRS, HDRS

MEM: 28.2 8.6

MEM (16M; 18F)

[39]*

SAD: 23.9 ± 6.7;

SAD (20M; 10F)

Assess the neuropsychological function of SAD without co-morbidity

NΨ: Executive function (CPT, TMT-B, WCST), Processing speed (TMT-A), Verbal learning & memory (AVLT)

SAD: ↓ executive function ~ ↑ SAD severity

HC: 25.6 ± 5.6

HC (20M; 10F)

Clinical: GAF

[44]

HC: 12.8 ± 2.5

HC (15M; 18F)

Examine basic performance neuropsychological performance in children and adolescents with anxiety disorder or depressive disorder and in healthy subjects under drug-free condition

NΨ: Intelligence (WISC-III), Verbal learning and memory (RAVLT), Attention (go-no go task)

DD: ↓ verbal learning and memory compared to HC and ANX.

ANX: 12.4 ± 2.3

ANX (19M; 15F)

DD: 13.5 ± 2.6

DD (17M; 14F)

Clinical: CDI

[48]

HC: 17.46 ± 1.59, MDD: 17.32 ± 1.59

HC (14M, 16F) MDD (12M, 19F)

Investigate whether major depression in adolescence is characterized by neurocognitive deficits in attention, affective decision making, and cognitive control of emotion processing

NΨ: Inhibitory control (CPT, go-no go task), Attention (ANT), Decision making (IGT), Verbal learning and memory (RAVLT), Attention (go-no go task)

MDD: ↑ depression symptom severity ~ ↓ cognitive control of emotion processing

Clinical: BDI

[167]*

OCD: 27 ± 9.8

OCD (15M; 16F)

Characterize the cognitive functions of the patients with OCD by utilizing ERPs and neuropsychological tests

NΨ: cognitive flexibility (SCWT, TMT-B), Processing speed (TMT-A), Design fluency test, Verbal fluency (CWAT)

Null findings for neuropsychological tests.

HC: 27.4 ± 9.1

HC (14M; 16F)

Clinical: HDRS

[49]

MDD: 15.3 ± 1.6

MDD (5M; 17F)

Investigate verbal fluency, cognitive speed, motor speed, and executive functions in adolescents with unipolar depression.

NΨ: Verbal fluency (COWAT), Processing speed (Inspection time task), Working memory (Serial choice reaction time task), Set shifting (Local-global task) Clinical:

DD: ↓ WM & VF. MDD: ↓WM & processing speed

DD: 15.6 ± 1.5

DD (6M; 6F)

HC: 15.8 ± 1.2

HC (9M; 24F)

[52]

OCD: 24.06 ± 5

OCD (21M; 9F)

Assess the relationship between cognitive dysfunction, clinical status and severity in OCD.

NΨ: Intelligence (WAIS-BD; -S), Cognitive flexibility (WCST)

Results showed a defective visuospatial recognition, which worsens with chronicity, deteriorated set-shifting abilities, overfocused attention to irrelevant stimuli and delayed selective attention to relevant tasks. Mild cases showed better selective attention than severe cases. Obsessive cases had a defective visual memory, while compulsive cases had delayed perception of task relevant stimuli. Mixed cases showed disturbed information-processing both early and late.

HC: Matched

HC (21M; 9F)

Clinical: YBOCS

[55]

HC: 12.4 ± 3.3,

HC (15M; 9F)

Examine the treatment impact of lamotrigine on the neurocognitive profile of patients with pediatric bipolar disorder

NΨ: Attention (TMT-A, CPT), cognitive flexibility (TMT-B), Verbal fluency (COWT), Working memory (WMS; DS, SS), Verbal memory (CVLT)

BPD: ↑ Working memory and verbal memory following treatment (to levels similar to HC)

BPD: 13 ± 3.1

BPD (18M; 16F)

Clinical: YMRS

[168]

MDD: 26.93 ± 5.33

MDD (14M; 14F)

Assess the association between executive function and relapse

NΨ: cognitive flexibility (CWIT, TMT-B), Verbal fluency (VFT), Processing speed (TMT-A),

MDD: Poor BL inhibition and switching ~ ↑ relapse at FU

HC: 26.93 ± 5.18

HC (14M; 14F)

Clinical: MADRS

[45]

CS: 28 ± 7.9

CS (642)

Examine whether cognitive deficits predict current and/or follow-up (sub)clinical depressive symptoms in the general population

NΨ: Information processing (SCWT, CST, LDST), Episodic memory (AVLT)

CS: Poor BL episodic memory ~ ↑ depressive symptoms at FUP

Clinical: SCL-90

[169]

BD: 22.2 ± 3.9

BD (23M; 22F)

Determine whether neuropsychological impairments are present in clinically stable patients with bipolar disorder shortly after resolution of their first manic episode

NΨ: Intelligence (NAART), Visual spatial reasoning (K-BIT), Attention/processing speed (TMT-A, CANTAB-RVP, CVLT), Learning and memory (CVLT- recall, CANTAB-SRM;-PRM;-PAL), cognitive flexibility (TMT-B, CANTAB-IED;-SWM), Verbal fluency (COWT),

BPD: ↓ learning/memory, spatial/nonverbal reasoning, executive function, and some aspects of attention

HC: 22.5 ± 4.8

HC (12M; 13F)

Clinical: PANSS, HDRS, BPRS, GAF, YMRS

[56]

MDD: 16.2 ± 1.1

MDD (7M; 11F)

Investigate the neurocognitive outcome in adolescents who were treated with TMS

NΨ: Verbal learning and memory (CAVLT), Cognitive flexibility (D-KEFS, TMT)

MDD: ↓ Depressive symptoms were associated with ↑ in immediate and delayed verbal memory.

Clinical: CDRS-R