Table 3 Characteristics of the studies included

Compassion Focused Approaches to Working With Distressing Voices

Heriot-Maitland C, McCarthy-Jones S, Longden E, Gilbert P.

Frontiers in Psychology

2019

UK

An outline of voice-hearing phenomenology in the context of evolutionary mechanisms for self- and social- monitoring.

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

To provide an outline of voice hearing phenomenology within the compassioned focused approach

Shame, social deprivation, and the quality of the voice-hearing relationship.

Carden LJ, Saini P, Seddon C, Evans E, Taylor PJ.

Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice

2019

UK

Online survey

171

50/21

37.8 (12.4)

Not reported

General population

to explore the possible psychosocial determinants of the relationship between the hearer and the voice, focusing on shame and social deprivation as putative correlates of voice relationship.

The ice in voices: Understanding negative content in auditory-verbal hallucinations.

Larøi F, Thomas N, Aleman A, Fernyhough C, Wilkinson S, Deamer F, McCarthy-Jones S.

Clinical Psychology Review

2019

Norway

Review

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

On shame and voice-hearing.

Woods A.

BMJ Med Human

2017

UK

Original article, case studies

2

1/1

range 20-40

Not reported

PTSD, schizoaffective disorder

To focus on shame and voice-hearing, taking as its point of departure the testimony of two voice-hearers

Affective and cognitive factors associated with hallucination proneness in the general population: the role of shame and trauma-related intrusions.

Bortolon C, Raffard S.

Journal of Cognitive Neuropsychiatry

2018

France

Survey

179

33/146

24 (6.61)

Not reported

Childhood trauma

To explore the mediation role of shame, trauma-related intrusions and avoidance in the association between childhood trauma and hallucination-proneness.

Is Shame Hallucinogenic?

McCarthy-Jones S.

Frontiers in Psychology

2017

Ireland

Hypotheis and Theory paper

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Stigma and need for care in individuals who hear voices

Vilhauer, R.P.

International Journal of Social Psychiatry

2017

USA

Review

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Hallucinations in Healthy Older Adults: An Overview of the Literature and Perspectives for Future Research

Johanna C. Badcoc

Frontiers in Psychology

2017

Australia

Review

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Auditory hallucinations, top-down processing and language perception: a general population study

de Boer, J.N.

Psychological Medicine

2019

The Netherlands

Online survey

5115

no HV: 60.5% female; AH ever: 68.6%; AH month: 74.4%; AH week: 74.3

No HV: 38.8; HV ever: 36.1; HV month: 33.2; AH week: 33.44

Not reported

General population

To explore the relationship between the occurrence of auditory hallucinations (AH) and the strength of top-down processes in auditory language perception

Perspectives on the Delirium Experience and Its Burden: Common Themes Among Older Patients, Their Family Caregivers, and Nurses

Eva M. Schmitt et al.

The Gerontologist

2017

USA

Qualitative interview study

18 patients who had recently experienced a delirium episode

77/11

Patients (n = 18) had a mean age of 79 years (range 70–92)

Not reported

8 (45%) reported a previous delirium episode that was con-firmed in the medical record, and 2 (11%) self-reported their previous episode

To describe common delirium burdens from the perspectives of patients, family caregivers, and nurses.

A comparison of hallucinatory experiences and their appraisals in those with and without mental illness

Connell M., Scott J., McGrath J., Waters F., Laroi F., Alati R., Najman J., Betts K.

Psychiatry Research

2019

Australia

Cohort Study

253 (43 no mental disorder VS 210 mental disorder (psychiatriac or not)

31%/69%

30-33 years

Not reported

Mental disoders VS no Mental D

To compare the characteristics of voice-hearing, and their appraisals, in individuals with psychotic disorder, non-psychotic mental disorder and no disorder in the general population.

Compassion Focused Approaches to Working With Distressing Voices

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Compassion focused therapy allows to identify the threat-based (dominant-subordinate) motivational systems when they arise. Moreover, it could play a role in understanding their function in the context of life, and shift into different motivational patternsthat are orientated around safeness and compassion.

N/A

Shame, social deprivation, and the quality of the voice-hearing relationship.

Hearing voice

Online

None

Nine participants left prior to completing the study, four of whom did not complete any of the questionnaires and five participants that did not continue past the first questionnaire

Participants must have heard at least one voice, irrespective of any mental health diagnosis. Individuals hearing a single voice or multiple different voices were both eligible for the study. The voice(s) must have occurred for at least 1 month and must have been a current experience at the time of participation. The voice(s) could produce a word or words, but also other utterances that could be attributed to a being (e.g., laughing, crying). Other auditory hallucinations that could not be related to an individual (e.g., machine noises) were not classed as a voice. The voice(s) may have been perceived as human or non-human (e.g., god) or viewed as a product of psychosis or illness. Only participants aged 18 and above, who lived in England, and who could understand or speak English were eligible for recruitment into the study.

Not specified

Nonparametric Spearman’s correlational analyses; a principal component analysis (PCA); a multiple linear regression

The Experience of Shame Scale (ESS); IMD score; Beliefs About Voices Questionnaire-Revised (BAVQ-R); Voice and You scale (VAY); Positively framed relational items to accompany the Voice and You scale

None

None

Relationships between social deprivation, shame, and the voice- hearing variables

Social deprivation and shame were not associated. Shame was positively associated with variables describing negative voice-hearing beliefs/relationships but not positive voice-hearing beliefs/relationships.

QNT

The ice in voices: Understanding negative content in auditory-verbal hallucinations.

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Different variables and factors may drive the nagative content of AVHs. In particular, adverse life-events may underpin much negative voice-content. This relationship could be mediated by mechanisms such as hypervigilance, reduced social rank, shame and self-blame, dissociation, and altered emotional processing

N/A

On shame and voice-hearing.

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Non-structured interview

N/A

None

Phenomenological and psychological features of shame in voice-hearing

Thanks to the testimonials, this articles stresses the relevance to pay attenttion to both the psychological and phenomenological features of voice-hearing in relation to shame, social cognition and the conceptualisation of the self.

N/A

Affective and cognitive factors associated with hallucination proneness in the general population: the role of shame and trauma-related intrusions.

N/A

Online

None

None

being able to speak and understand French and being older than 18 years old and younger than 60

4 persons excluded because older than 60s

Mean, standard deviation and frequency of socio-demographic and clinical variables were calculated. Multiple regression analyses

Adverse childhood experiences questionnaire (ACE); Impact of event scale-Revised (IES-R); Experience of shame scale (ESS); The Launay–slade hallucination scale (LSHS)

None

None

[1] trauma (independent variable- IV) was associated with hallucination-proneness (depen- dent variable- DV) [2]; the IV was associated with shame, intrusions, and avoidance (mediation variables – MV) [3]; both the IV and MD were associated with the DV. If stat- istically signi!cant associations were found for step [2] and [3], we could conclude that there is an indirect e"ect.

Having intrusive thoughts and memories about past negative experiences together with feelings of shame may contribute to hallucination-proneness following childhood trauma

QNT

Is Shame Hallucinogenic?

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

One of the main hypothesis is that, reducing shame, the shamful content of AVH will be reduced. Moreover, shame will mediate the relationship between trauma and AVH and it will influence the treatments' efficacy. Another hypothesis stresses the idea that shame plays a key role in the onset of AVH after a trauma

N/A

Stigma and need for care in individuals who hear voices

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Stigma contribute to making voice hearing experiences pathognomonic

N/A

Hallucinations in Healthy Older Adults: An Overview of the Literature and Perspectives for Future Research

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

The emergence of hallucinations is as a balance between the sensory, cognitive, or social impairments accompanying advancing age and the degree to which compensatory processes elicited by these impairments are successful

N/A

Auditory hallucinations, top-down processing and language perception: a general population study

Number of responses on distracting cues

Online

None

2079

[1] being a native speaker of Dutch (to avoid differences in perception based on language fluency), and [2] age of 14 and over.

Not specified

Participant characteristics were compared between groups using a χ2 test for categorical values and an analysis of variance for continuous variables. A Kruskal–Wallis test was used in case an assumption was violated. Relevant test assumptions were assessed visually by evaluating Q–Q plots of the residuals and scatter plots of the predicted values and the unstandardized residuals. A general linear model (GLM) was also applied.

Online auditory verbal recognition task; Stimuli selection and recording; Questionnaire for Psychotic Experiences

Hearing test

None

N/A

Individuals with AVH are less sensitive (i.e. reduced discrimin- atory ability) in their auditory word recognition, as expressed by a higher false alarm rate compared with individuals without AH

QNT

Perspectives on the Delirium Experience and Its Burden: Common Themes Among Older Patients, Their Family Caregivers, and Nurses

N/A

Clinic

1 month after discharge

None

Inclusion criteria for patients included age 70 years or older, admission to the general medicine service of a large, urban, acute-care academic medical center, ability to communicate effectively in English (including adequate hearing), residence within a 40-mile radius of the hospital, and a positive screen for delirium.

patients with dementia; active alcohol abuse, diagnosis of schizophrenia or active psychosis, developmental delay, and terminal condition.

They digitally recorded and professionally transcribed all interviews

Semistructured qualitative interviews about delirium burden

None

16 family caregivers, and 15 nurses who routinely cared for patients with delirium

The common themes across patients, nurses and caregivers were: Symptom Burden, Emotional Burden, and Situational Burden.

Delirium is a shared experience between patients, caregivers and nurses and it is linked to the burden's experience

QL

A comparison of hallucinatory experiences and their appraisals in those with and without mental illness

N/A

Clinic

N/A

Not reported

Not specified

Not specified

Correlations; regression analysis

Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-1); Appraisals of Anomalous Experiences Interview (AANEX)

None

None

N/A

Those with a non-psychotic disorder had more than twice the odds of voice-hearing compared to those with no disorder. Vioce-hearing and their negative appraisals were similar between groups and their recurrence differentiated clinical from non-clinical populations.

QNT