Table 5 Subgroup analyses stratified by geographical regions

Short-term training

−0.409 (0.154)

−0.711 ~ − 0.108

<  0.01

−0.186 (0.209)

− 0.596 ~ 0.224

0.374

− 0.045 (0.160)

−0.360 ~ 0.269

0.777

Long-term training

−0.898 (0.185)

− 1.261 ~ − 0.536

<  0.001

− 0.591 (0.244)

−1.070 ~ − 0.112

<  0.05

−1.010 (0.202)

− 1.407 ~ − 0.613

<  0.001

Self-experience

−0.350 (0.167)

− 0.677 ~ − 0.023

<  0.05

−0.715 (0.232)

−1.171 ~ − 0.259

<  0.01

−0.741 (0.174)

−1.083 ~ − 0.400

<  0.001

Supervision

−1.068 (0.178)

− 1.418 ~ − 0.719

<  0.001

− 1.322 (0.244)

−1.800 ~ − 0.844

<  0.001

−1.363 (0.195)

− 1.745 ~ − 0.980

<  0.001

Gender

−0.462 (0.135)

− 0.726 ~ − 0.198

<  0.01

−0.022 (0.183)

− 0.381 ~ 0.338

0.906

− 0.354 (0.167)

−0.681 ~ − 0.026

<  0.05

Age

0.461 (0.173)

0.121 ~ 0.800

<  0.01

0.386 (0.254)

−0.112 ~ 0.885

0.129

−0.034 (0.202)

−0.430 ~ 0.362

0.867

Hospital levels

−0.279 (0.060)

−0.397 ~ − 0.161

<  0.001

−0.118 (0.075)

− 0.265 ~ 0.029

0.115

− 0.262 (0.060)

−0.379 ~ − 0.145

<  0.001

Education level

0.132 (0.114)

−0.091 ~ 0.356

0.245

0.160 (0.137)

−0.108 ~ 0.428

0.241

−0.445 (0.123)

−0.686 ~ − 0.205

< 0.001

Workforce

0.006 (0.048)

−0.087 ~ 0.099

0.896

−0.265 (0.067)

−0.396 ~ − 0.134

< 0.001

−0.321 (0.050)

− 0.420 ~ − 0.222

<  0.001

Title

−0.007 (0.061)

− 0.127 ~ 0.113

0.913

− 0.137 (0.071)

−0.275 ~ 0.002

0.054

0.042 (0.062)

−0.079 ~ 0.163

0.493

ΔR²

0.188

0.201

0.198

Adjusted R²

0.182

0.192

0.192

F

32.067^***

21.496^***

37.543^***