Table 5 Model fit indices of the measurement invariance tests

Invariance test across gender at T1 (N = 3099, Male = 1648, Female = 1451)

 configural

145.374^***

38

3.826

0.043 (0.035 0.050)

0.990

0.985

 metric

159.739^***

44

3.630

16.371^*

0.041 (0.034 0.048)

0.989

0.986

-0.001

-0.001

 threshold

163.872^***

58

2.825

19.229

0.034 (0.028 0.041)

0.990

0.990

-0.007

0.001

 strict

238.184^***

66

3.609

69.251^***

0.041 (0.035 0.047)

0.983

0.986

0.007

-0.007

Invariance test across gender at T2 (N = 1978, Male = 1027, Female = 951)

 configural

76.472^***

38

2.012

0.032 (0.021 0.042)

0.996

0.994

 metric

82.350^***

44

1.872

6.989

0.030 (0.020 0.040)

0.996

0.995

-0.002

0.000

 threshold

86.099^**

58

1.484

11.853

0.022 (0.011 0.032)

0.997

0.997

-0.008

0.001

 strict

124.283^***

66

1.883

36.620^***

0.030 (0.022 0.038)

0.994

0.995

0.008

-0.003

Invariance test over time (T1: N = 3099; T2: N = 1978)

 configural

191.674^***

90

2.130

0.019 (0.015 0.023)

0.994

0.993

 metric

205.933^***

96

2.145

15.016^*

0.019 (0.016 0.023)

0.994

0.993

0.000

0.000

 threshold

240.565^***

110

2.187

37.118^***

0.020 (0.016 0.023)

0.993

0.992

0.001

-0.001

 strict

289.206^***

118

2.451

49.229^***

0.022 (0.018 0.025)

0.991

0.991

0.002

-0.002

Longitudinal cross-gender invariance test (T1: N = 3099, Male = 1648, Female = 1451; T2: N = 1978, Male = 1027, Female = 951)

 configural

322.486^***

190

1.697

0.021 (0.017 0.025)

0.993

0.991

 metric

346.217^***

208

1.665

27.102^†

0.021 (0.017 0.024)

0.993

0.991

0.000

0.000

 threshold

414.599^***

250

1.658

75.547^**

0.021 (0.017 0.024)

0.991

0.992

0.000

-0.002

 strict

532.547^***

266

2.002

122.085^***

0.025 (0.022 0.029)

0.986

0.987

0.004

-0.005