Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies to assess the effect of virtual reality-based training programs and games on the improvement of cognitive disorders in patients

Optale, 2020 [43]

Italy

Older adults with memory deficits

Headphones, joystick, computer

31(21/10)

CG = 81.6 ± 5

EG = 78.5 ± 10.9

VR-based training programs (VR memory training (VRMT) with auditory stimulation and pathfinding experiences)

Face-to-face training sessions using music therapy

45-minute session, 10 sessions in a 4-6-week period, with two sessions per week.

Tarnanas, 2014 [44]

Greece

Older subjects with MCI

A computer

78 (28/50)

CG = 70.5 ± 4.3

EG = 69.7 ± 4.4

Game (virtual reality museum a)

DVD-based educational programs for memory improvement

Twice a week for 90 min across 5 months

Oliveira, 2021 [45]

Portugal

Older adults with Alzheimer

A 17-inch laptop

17(5/12)

CG = 84.14 ± 6.30

EG = 82.60 ± 5.42

VR-based training programs (Utilizing a computerized cognitive stimulation program with non-immersive VR, featuring exercises that simulate instrumental activities of daily living (IADL))

Receiving treatment-as-usual at care units for older adults

10 sessions (two sessions/week, 45 min for each session,) for two months

Kim, 2021 [46]

Italy

Older subjects with cognitive impairment

Xbox Kinect platform

20 (3/17)

CG = 64.70 ± 6.83

EG = 68.32 ± 6.32

VR-based training programs (a VR bicycle riding program through Google Maps)

Performing daily tasks

Once-daily sessions lasting 30 min, two days per week, for a duration of 12 weeks

Kang, 2021 [38]

Korea

Older subjects with cognitive decline or MCI

Head-mounted Oculus Rift CV1 display, along with Oculus Touch controllers held in both hands of patients

41(12/29)

CG = 73.28 ± 6.96

EG = 75.48 ± 4.67

VR-based training programs (Undergoing cognitive training with the assistance of a neuropsychologist in a completely immersive VR environment)

Receiving usual therapy, including pharmacotherapy.

Approximately 20–30 min for each session, twice a week, for 1 month.

Park, 2022 [39]

Korea

Older adults with MCI

Joystick, computer

56 (23/33)

CG = 72.04 ± 2.42

EG = 71.93 ± 3.11

VR-based training programs (a VR-based spatial cognitive task crafted to enhance spatial memory (32 sessions)).

A VR-based spatial cognitive task crafted to enhance spatial memory (24 sessions)

56 sessions, 45 min a session, 3 days a week for 8 weeks

Zheng, 2022 [47]

China

Older people with dementia

A Kinect sensor and a console

38 (9/29)

CG = 84.26 ± 5.48

EG = 81.74 ± 5.79

Game (using the Kinect game Fruit Ninja as an exercise intervention to enhance hand-eye coordination and motor skills)

Receiving usual therapy, including

One h/day, 5 days/week for 8 weeks

Yang, 2022 [40]

Korea

Older adults with MCI

An Oculus VR headset (Oculus quest headset) and two wireless hand controllers

66 (9/57)

CG = 72.7 ± 5.6

EG = 72.6 ± 5.4

Game (Four games encompassing various brain domains, such as attention and working memory)

Educational seminars focusing on health-related subjects, including advice on nutrition and exercise for preventing geriatric diseases.

A total of 24 sessions (each VR training session lasted for 100 min) for eight weeks.

Thapa, 2020 [41]

Korea

Older adults with MCI

An Oculus VR headset (Oculus quest headset) and two wireless hand controllers

68 (16/50)

CG = 72.7 ± 5.6

EG = 72.6 ± 5.4

Game (Four varieties of VR game-based content designed to enhance attention, memory, and processing speed.)

An educational program focusing on overall healthcare.

A total of 24 sessions (100 min each session) for eight weeks

Lim, 2023 [42]

Korea

Older adults with MCI

A tablet

24 (7/17)

CG = 73.33 ± 17.52

EG = 75.42 ± 5.74

Game (A Brain Talk™ home-based Serious game comprising 10 sections: memory, thinking, attention, language, mathematics, visual fields, planning, agility, and coordination, audiovisual training)

Performing daily tasks

12 training sessions, each lasting 30 min, conducted three times per week over a period of three weeks.